PRAMEYA

The prameya  or objects of knowledge are:- 1. Atmaa- the Soul, 2. Sareera – the body, 3. Indriya- the senses, 4. Artha – the objective world, 5. Buddhi – the intellect, 6. Manah – the mind, 7. Pravritti – action, 8. Dosha- Error, 9. Pretyabhaava – disembodied states or transmigrations, 10. Phala – the fruit or retribution, 11. Dukha- pain, 12. Apavarga- freedom or emancipation of the Soul.

JEEVAATMA

According to the Nyaaya, the soul (jeevatmaa) is individual in each person and separate from the body and senses. It is the seat of knowledge and feeling. It is eternal in duration (Nitya). Ichha – (desire), Dyesha (aversion), Sukha- (pleasure), Dukha – (pain), and (jnaana – (knowledge) imply the existence of soul, which is a substance  (Dravya). It is the substratum, in which these several qualities reside. The soul experiences the fruit (Phala) of good or bad deeds (Karma). 

PARAMAATMAA

The supreme soul (Paramaatmaa) is One. It is the seat of eternal knowledge, the maker or former of all things.  

SAREERA

The body Sareera is the seat of efforts i.e. Prayatna and of the organs of senses. By association with the body, the soul has the feeling of pleasure and pain. The body is Paanchabhautika.  

ORGANS OF SENSE

The five external organs are not modifications of consciousness (Ahankaara) as the Saankhya philosophy teaches us, but are formed of Sthoola-Pancha – Mahaabhootas – Prithvi, Aapa, Teja, Vaayu, Aakaasha, corresponding to the senses of Ghraana, Rasa, Roopa, Sparsa and Sabda. The six padaarthaas of the Vaiseshika are thus placed under objects of senses.  

THE MIND

There is the sixth sense “Antarindriya” [Internal organ] – Manas- Mind. By union with the external senses, the mind produces the knowledge of exterior objects. Its office is to separate the sensations and to present them singly to the soul. Hence it is that the soul does not receive more than one sensation or rather perception at the same instant. The Manas is minutely small as an atom [Anu]; for otherwise, it might come in contact with many things and cause many sensations at one time. It is eternal (Nitya) and distinct from both the soul and the body.  

MOKSHA

Moksha is deliverance from pain (Dukha – dhwamsa). The soul attains deliverance by knowledge, by meditating on itself, by not earning fresh merits or demerits through action springing from desire and by becoming free from passion through knowledge of evil inherent in objects.  

For further information the reader is referred to the original work. Nyaya sootras by Gautama in Sanskrit, to S**- Sangraha in English or Nyaaya Darsana in Telugu in VOL I, Section II, ie our Series and Tarka Sangrah with Commentary by Annambhotim also in Telugu and many Sanskrit books on the subject.  

[II] THE VAISESHIKA SYSTEM

[Contents:- The Vaiseshika System – The six categories – Dravya – Atomic theory – Aarambha vaada – Seswaravaada – Guna – Manas – Gurutwa – Kaala Dik – Karma – Saamaanya – Visesha – Samavaaya – Abhaava – The Theory of Atomic Agglomeration – Peelu Paakavaada – Pithhara Paakavaada – The Scope of Vaiseshika Darsana.]  

The Vaiseshika system is supplementary to that of Gautama [Nyaaya], coinciding with it in the main, but differing from it in allowing only two methods of proof [Pramaana]- (i.e.,) 1. Pratyaksha (Perception) and 2. Anumaana (inference) and in its arrangement of the objects of knowledge (Prameya).  

THE SIX CATEGORIES

There are in this system six categories or Predicaments (Padaarthaas) 1. Dravya-thing or substance 2. Guna-quality, 3. Karma-action, 4. Saamaanya-community, or genus, 5. Visesha- Particularity, 6. Samavaaya,- the co-inherence or intimate connection of constituent parts. A seventh namely Abbaava- non-existence or negation was added later.  

(1) DRAVYA

Dravya – The first category, namely Dravya is sub-divided into nine divisions 1. Prithvi-earth, 2. Aapa-water, 3. Teja-light, 4. Vaayu-air, 5. Aakaasa-other, 6. Kaala-time, 7. Dik-space, 8. Aatma-soul, 9. Mana-mind. Of these Prithvi, Aapa, Teja, Vaayu and Man are “Anu” (Atomic), the others are `Vibhu’ (ever pervading). The atoms are round, extremely minute, incapable of division, invisible, eternal in themselves but not in aggregate forms. 

            They have individually, a specific difference [Visesha] from which the name Vaiseshika has been derived. Light, for example, is formed by the aggregation of luminous atoms. And other substances are also formed in a similar manner. These atoms combine by two in an aggregate called `Dvyanuka’. They again combine and thus form aggregates called “Trasarenu”, which comes within the range of our sight as a mote in the sun-beam. They are innumerable and are perpetually united and disintegrated and reunited and re-disintegrated by particular unseen force called Adrishta.  

ATOMIC THEORY

The followers of Kanaada are known as Kaanaadas. In their opinion the root cause of the world is atoms. The definition of atoms given by Kanaada as above, and the one given by the western scientists is almost the same. When after dividing and sub-dividing things, you come to the stage when division is no more possible, you have reached the atom or Paramaanu (Parama Anu) i.e., the ultimate entity. As these atoms coalesce, they acquire a new quality as the result of the union and new things are created. There are also atoms of the mind and of the body and when these unite, life results.

AARAMBHA VAADA

The fundamental atoms of Prithvi have four qualities namely – Gandha, Rasa, Roopa and Sparsa. Those of Aapa have the last three qualities: those of Tejas the last two: these of Vaayu only the last one. In this way the entire universe is from the very beginning filled with permanent and subtle atoms. There is no other root cause of the world except the atoms. The commencement (Aarambha) of the mutual coalition or union of the original and permanent atoms, results in all the percepts. This is technically known as “Aarambha Vaada”, Theory of Commencement. Some followers of this School do not go beyond the atoms.  

SESWARA VAADA

There is a story, that when one of the Vaiseshikas was, at the moment of his death, asked to utter the name of God, he uttered the words “Peelavah, Peelavah, Peelavah” “Atoms, Atoms, Atoms”. Nevertheless other followers of this school believed that Isvara (God) is responsible for bringing about the fusion or union of the atoms. They, in that way, complete the chain of the creation of the universe. They are called “Sesvara – Vaadis”. 

They say that the universe must have a maker, because it is an effect like a jar (ghata). It is implied that the creative mind must have been created by a power possessing like qualities, but of an infinitely higher kind.  

It will thus be seen that the atomic theory advanced by modern scientists (Dalton theory) is not at all modern. The theory of Dalton was exploded by the evolution theory of Darwin. In the same way, the Saankhya philosophy has put into the background, the theories of Kannada.  

The Kannada School could not satisfactorily explain, how activity was first imparted to atoms. They could not also explain how the rising gradation of successive evolution of life in trees, animals and man came into existence, nor could they explain how living matter was derived out of non-living matter. This was done in ancient India by the Saankhya theory of evolution. See below.  

(2) GUNA

Guna- The second category, namely, Guna is translated as quality. The qualities are twenty four. 1. Roopa- Colour, 2. Rasa – Taste, 3. Gandha- Smell, 4. Sparsha – Touch, 5. Sankhya – Number, 6. Parimaana – Dimension, 7. Prithaktva- Individuality, 8. Samyoga – Conjunction, 9. Vibhaaga – Disjunction, 10. Paratva – Priority, 11. Aparatva – Posteriority, 12. Buddhi – Intellect, 13. Sukha – Pleasure, 14. Dukha – Pain, 15. Icchha – Desire, 16. Dvesha – Aversion, 17. Prayatna – Volition, 18. Gurutwam – Gravity, 19. Dravatvam – Fluidity, 20. Sneha – Viscidity, 21. Samskaara – Self-reproduction (or restitution including motion, elasticity and memory) 22. Sabda – Sound, 23. Dharma – Merit and 24. Adharma – Demerit.  

            Light and heat are considered as only different forms of the same substance, so also electricity and magnetism. The direct instrument of vision is a ray of light proceeding from the pupil of the eye to the object seen. This ray of light is not ordinarily visible, as the brightness of a torch is not seen when the Sun shines. This ray of light which is not seen when the Sun shines. This ray of light which is not seen in the sunlight, may be seen at night in the eye of a cat or other animal watching for its prey. Aakaasa (Ether) is uncompounded, infinite and eternal. It is not atomic (Vibhu). It is known only by inference. It has the quality of conducting sound which is caused by means of a portion of Ether (Aakaasa) confined in the hollow of the ear and endowed with an occult virtue.  

MANAS

The Manas (mind) is considered to be extremely small as an atom (Anu) and thus only one sensation is conveyed to the soul at one time. It is eternal and distinct from both soul and body, with which it is only conjoined.  

GURUTVA

Gurutva, (gravity) is the peculiar cause of a body falling to the ground. It effects Bhoo and ‘Aapa’ Dravyaas. Lightness is not a distinct quality but only the negation of Gurutva.

KAALA

Kaala (time) is inferred from the relation of priority (Bhoota) and subsequence (Bhavishyat) other than that of place. This is marked by the association of objects with the Sun’s revolution and is measured by Kshana, Dina, Rutu, Samvatsara and so on.  

THE THEORY OF ATOMIC AGGLOMERATION

According to Vaiseshika Darsana the whole universe is constituted of atoms. “Kaarana Guna Poorvakah Karya Guna Drishatah” The properties that exist in the causative factor are found in the resultant factor. Every atom has some special properties and the properties of a substance which is constituted of these atoms would develop the same properties as are contained in the atoms.

In a big tank waves arise on its tops by winds. These waves are not structurally different from the water below. When you compare a bit of the wave to the hugequantity of water, that is contained in the tank, it is like a very small particle. However small they may be, these particles are the same as the water contained in the tank. Similarly, the whole Brahmaanda or universe consists of  minute particles, which make up the whole.

There are two theories explaining how these particles combine with each other. One is called Peelupaaka Vaada” chemical theory, and the other is called Pittharapaaka Vaada, physical theory.