CHAPTER I
Introduction

[Contents:- Introduction – Books available-Aayurveda and Darsanas – (1) Nyaaya Vaise-shika, (2) Saankhya Yoga, (3) Poorva and Uttara meemaamsaa – The object of studying Darsanas.]

 BOOKS AVAILABLE

 There are very few books in English on the Darsanas. A translation of Sarvadarsana Saara Sangraha by Maadhavaachaarya was published in Trubner’s Oriental Series, London. It contains review of the following 16 philosophical systems by Maadhavaachaarya, the brother of Saayanachaarya, who ascended the Sringeri Peetha in the year 1331 A.D. The original of the book was in Telugu character. The Darsanas reviewed are 1. The Chaarvaaka System 2. The Baudha System 3. The Arhata or Jaina System 4. The Raamaanuja System 5. The Poorna-prajna (Madhva) system, 6. The Nakulisa-Paasupata System, 7. The Saiva System, 8. The Pratyabhijna or Recognitive System, 9. The Rasesvara or Mercurial System, 10. The Vaiseshika or Aulukya System, 11. The Akshapaada or Nyaaya System, 12. The Jaiminiya System or Meemaamsaa,     13. The Paanineeya System, 14. Saankhya System, 15. The Paatanjala or Yoga System,  16. The Vedaanta or System of Samkaraachaarya.       

Saankhya aphorisms of Kapila translated by James R. Ballantyne LL. D. (1885) and Sankhya Kaarikas of Eeswarakrishna, translated by John Davis (1894) were both published in the above series.

An English translation of the Sanskrit test of The Saankhya Tatva Koumudi of Vaachaspati Misra by Gangnath Jha M.A.F.T.S. was published for the Bombay Theosophical Publication Fund by Tukaaraam Taatya F.T.S. in 1896.

The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy by Max Muller, is a well-known publication. In Sanskrit and in the provincial languages, there are numerous books to which references have been made in our Telugu edition of Darsanas.

AAYURVEDA AND DARSANAAS 

The Science of Aayurveda is based upon the fundamental sciences called “Darsanas”,  Darsanas include all sciences, physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual. These Darsanas were studied in India as part of general education of every student. One has to be well – up in the Sanskrit language and then only he can study these sciences from original sources. The five compulsory subjects (Vidyaas) in all universities were 1. Sabda Vidyaa – grammar and literature, 2. Silpa Vidyaa – manual training in arts and crafts including mathematics. 3. Chikitsaa Vidyaa-The science of medicine, 4. Hetu Vidyaa- Logic and philosophy, 5. Aadhyaatma Vidyaa – Spiritual science. These formed the course of study of every student in Hindustan. Just as they should now have a certain proficiency of the English language and an elementary knowledge of natural sciences, before they can proceed, to the medical study, so also a knowledge of Sanskrit and of these fundamental sciences (Darsanas) is necessary for the understanding of the principles of Aayurveda. In fact, this premedical course was compulsory for every Vaidya in Susruta’s days –  

Ekam saastramadheeyaano na vidyaachchaastra nischayam, tasmaat bahusrutah saastram vijaaneeyaat, chikitsakah (S. su. 4-7) i.e.,  

By a study of a single Saastra a man can never catch the true import of this science of medicine. Therefore a physician should study as many allied branches of science or philosophy as possible. For explanations of truths and principles quotes from other branches of science and only incidentally discussed in the present work, the student is referred to the expositions made by the masters of those sciences, since it is impossible to deal with all branches of science in a single book and within so short a compass. 

“Nahyekasmin Saastre sakyahsarva saastraanaam avarodhaah Kartum”. (Sus. Su. 4-5)

            Darsanas are Saastras, where well-reasoned attitude of the human being towards the world is explained according to the Hindus. They are mainly six, consisting of 3 groups. They are partly sciences and partly philosophies according to our modern conception. 

(1) NYAYA – VAISESHIKA.

These deal mainly with physics, chemistry and other material sciences and include reasoning or logic. Metaphysical studies or search for knowledge of God, however, formed the ultimate aim of the study of these saastras also. 

(2) SAANKHYA – YOGA.

Saankhya – Yoga deals mainly with the mental sciences, as will be explained below. The material aspects of study were not neglected even here.  

(3) POORVA AND UTTARAMEEMAAMSAA.

There relate mainly to the exposition of the Brahman (Universal Spirit). The object of Purvameemaamsaa is right action (Karma kaanda) under the supreme authority of the Vedas. Uttarameemaamsaa- or Vedaanta is more directly based upon the Upanishads. Its main object is to explain that there is in reality only one Existence - Non-Dualism. 

THE OBJECT OF STUDYING DARSANAS.

The object of all philosophical studies in Hindustan has been the acquisition of the knowledge of the eternal theme of Indian spiritual thought, namely, to seek, know and realize, “the One in the many”. 

The word Darsana is derived from the root Darsa which means “to see”. Darsana means seeing, looking or sight. It also means the eye, the mirror and knowledge- especially religious. Here, Darsana means a Saastra – Science – knowledge or philosophy. The Darsanas are primarily divided into 2. Classes – Aastika Darsanas, which accept the authority of the Vedas and Naastika Darsanas, which do not accept their authority. The Aastika Darsanas are generally counted as six and are called the Shat-Darsanas. They are (1) Nyaaya (2) Vaiseshika (3) Saankhya (4) Yoga (5) Meemaamsaa (6) Vedaanta. The Nastika Darsanas are chiefly, [1] Chaarvaaka Darsana, [2] Bauddha Darsana [3] Jaina Darsana. There are other Darsanas like Raseswara Darsana, Paasupata, Saiva and Saakta Darsanas which are also recognised systems of philosophy in Hindustan.

CHAPTER II
Nyaaya Vaiseshika.

[Contents:- [1] Nyaaya, [2] Vaiseshika, [3] Navya Nyaaya.]

[1] NYAAYA SYSTEM.

            [Contents:- Nyaaya System-The Scope of Nyaaya – Five Avayavas – Sixteen Padaarthas – Pramaana – Prameya – Jeevatma – Paramaatmaa – Sareera – Organs of sense – Mind – Moksha.] 

Nyaaya system was formulated by Gautama (Not Gautama Buddha) This is also called Akshapaada Darsana. 

THE SCOPE OF NYAAYA

The term Nyaaya means analysis. The Nyaaya system of teaching is devoted to the exposition of a system of logic and enunciation of the methods whereby truth may be ascertained by the logical process of examination and analysis. Western Scholars, therefore, generally accepted it as logic and ignored the philosophical and metaphysical aspects of the teachings of Nyaaya. The system has in fact a dual object being partly a school of logical analysis and partly also of philosophical and metaphysical reasonings. Many are inclined to the view that the Greek Schools of Philosophy were ludchted to the early Hindu system. 

Together with the Vaiseshika, the Nyaaya adheres to the atomic theory of the universe. But the most important part of Nyaaya is to classify and enumerate the various things in the world. The subject matter of proof, finding out what the fundamental classes of things are under which all the substances in the world can be classified, as, a result of the gradual evolution of things in the lower orders into things in the higher orders, and finding out what their nature and qualities are, and how other things came into existence out of these things, and how all these things can be proved, and all such other questions are included in Nyaaya philosophy.(Geeta Rahasya. Vol. 1.7.) 

FIVE AVAYAVAS

The Hindu- Syllogism of Gautama consists of five parts or propositions viz. (1) Pratijna- the promise, (2) Hetu- the proof, (3) Udaaharana- the illustration, (4) Upanaya- the application of the proof, (5) Nigamana- the conclusion. These are called the five Avayavas. The western syllogism consists of only three parts of the proposition, namely, the two premises and the conclusion. 

SIXTEEN PADAARTHAS

The Nyaaya School holds that the logical method, of ascertaining truths was by the application of the sixteen categories or Padaarthas- the topics for discussion. These topics are 1. Pramaana means of knowledge, 2. Prameya- objects of enquiry, 3. Samasya- doubt, 4. Prayojana – purpose, 5. Dristaanta – illustration, Siddhaanta- dogma or determinate truth, 7. Avayava-  syllogism or argument, 8. Tarka – confutation, 9. Nirnaya-ascertainment, 10. Vaada discussion, 11. Jalpa- wrangling and hairsplitting, 12. Vitanda cavilling or raising objections, 13. Hetvaabhaasa- fallacy, 14. Chhala- perversion or unfair ambiguity, 15. Jaati- futile objections, 16. Nigraha sthaana- conclusion or the confounding of an adversary. 

The student is trained and drilled until he thoroughly understands the nature and use of these sixteen topics. Of these, the first two are the chief; the others are only subsidiary and indicate the course which a discussion may take from the setting forth of a doubt to the final confutation of the doubt. 

PRAMAANA
(Means of Knowledge)